HUMAN CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN NIGERIA; THE ROLE OF NOMADIC EDUCATION
1,2 Department of Economics, College of Education, Agbor, Delta state, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Education is crucial to the socio-economic development of any country. This is because appropriate knowledge and skills are acquired in the formal setting of primary, secondary and higher education including adult, professional, technical and non-formal education. This study examined the impact of Nomadic education expenditure and economic growth in Nigeria. The study made use of time series data on real gross domestic product and total government expenditure on Nomadic education from 1986 to 2014. The study employed ordinary Least Square (OLS), which provides information about the long run relationship between the variables and revealed that total government expenditure on Nomadic education ((NEDUE) has a significant impact on Nigeria economic growth. The study concluded that there is need for the government to increase her budgetary allocation to the nomadic education and other educational sector because adequate investment in this sector will improve educational outcome and induce the nation economic growth.
Keywords:Education, Nomadic, Government, Expenditure, Investment, Educational outcome.
ARTICLE HISTORY: Received: 24 April 2017, Revised: 20 December 2017, Accepted: 29 December 2017, Published: 3 January 2018
Contribution/ Originality: This study contributes in existing literature under conceptual issues by bringing in the idea of resource endowment classified into human beings and emphasized on human resource as major contributors to value creation.
There can be no significant growth in any country without adequate investment in human capital. A typical example is the Asian tiger; Taiwan, Singapore whose economies experienced sharp improvement via substantial investment in human capital (Jaiyeoba, 2015). Hence, the global economy that is skill and knowledge based, places more emphasis on human capital development as it is crucial to the growth process of an economy. This is attested to by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that ended in 2015, as well as the ongoing vision 20:2020 at the domestic front which is targeted at improving the educational system by way of access, equity infrastructure, teacher quality and cumulative relevance, funding and planning. Human capital development gained momentum in many developing countries since 1990, when the United Nation Development Programmes (UNDP) adopted publishing the Human Development Report year by year. Indeed the concept of human capital development to economic growth is a nascent idea, to buttress this, Adawo (2011) cited Solow (1956) who posited that before the recent past accumulation of physical capital was considered near-singular factor of economic growth, improvement in technology that accounts for increase in output and services was considered as an exogenous variable. The consideration of human capita as a growth factor is important because, of all factors of production only human beings have the capacity of learning adapting or changing, innovating and creating. Hence the actions and reactions of human beings are critical to productivity. Human capital according to Todar and Smith (2003),cited by Oluwatoyin (2011) is the economic term often use for education, health and other human capacities that can raise productivity when increased.
The broader focus of this study is education which is crucial to the socio-economic development of any country. This is because appropriate knowledge and skills are acquired in the formal setting of primary, secondary and higher education including adult, professional, technical and non-formal education. These help to increase or improve the abilities and competence both physical and mental of the individual to contribute toward the development of the society. The National policy on Education of 1981 refers to Education as the birth right of every Nigerian child, which must be brought, close to the environment of the child. This necessitated the introduction of Nomadic Education programme in Nigeria in 1986. This point is evident in Akighir and Okpe (2013) who opined that in the quest to remove the chronic illiteracy among the mobile population of Nigeria, the federal government of Nigeria introduced Nomadic Education Programme(NEP) in 1986. To make the programme functional the federal government in 1989, put on stream the National Commission for Nomadic Education (NCNE). This is attested to by Nafisatu and Abdul (2010) who posited that the National Commission for Nomadic Education (NCNE) was established in 1989 with the mandate to; (a). formulate policies and guidelines on all matters relating to Nomadic Education in Nigeria. (b). Provide funds for research and personnel development of nomadic education and develop programs on nomadic education and provide equipment, instructional materials construction of classrooms and other facilities for nomadic educations. Not with standing these intentions of government on education, it is widely perceived that Nigerian government is not doing enough as regards expenditure on education. Thus the UNDP (2008) in her Human Development Report posited that Nigeria spends almost an insignificant proportion of its financial resources on education the expenditure on education in Nigeria as a proportion of GDP averaged 5.84 percent, which falls below the United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO’S) bench mark of 26 percent of the budget of developing countries.
Nomadic education is that Education designed for those who are not settled in a particular place, as a result of the economic activities they engage in, such groups of people are the herdsmen and fishermen. The Nomads who are of different extractions are increasing by the days and a significant number are not accommodated by the educational programme designed for them. Accordingly Nafisatu and Abdul (2010) asserted that out of the estimated population of 9.4 million nomads in Nigeria, 3.3 million are children of school age, but the participation of the nomads in existing formal and non-formal education programs is abysmally low, with a literacy rate ranging between 0.2% and 2.9%. Also Akighir and Okpe (2013) posited that the Nigeria nomadic pastoralists are made up of the Fulani (5.3m), Shuwa (1.01m), Koyam (32,000), Badai (20,000), Dark Buzzu (15,000) and Buduma (10,000).The Fulani are found in 31 out of 36 states in Nigeria, while others reside mainly on the Bornu plains r and shores of Lake Chad. The migrant fishing groups account for about 2.8 Million, comprising numerous tribes. They are found in the Atlantic coastline, the riverside areas and river basins of the country. Nomadic education is intended to improve the communication skill of the nomads and their host communities, reduce clashes between them which have its attendant ills of impeding economic activities, loss of lives and property. In addition education will make them more amenable to changes to improve their productivity as well as combat diseases-human and animal. To buttress this Amadi (2015) opined that literacy and numeracy will help them to read and access the internet to know not only how to prevent diseases but also the sales of their products.
Economic growth refers to increase in a country’s potential Gross Domestic Product, although this differs depending on how national product has been measured. It can lead to increased availability of food, increasing earnings which makes educational spending more affordable at the micro level and higher public revenue which can translate to higher investment/expenditure in social infrastructure. The aspiration of any government is not only to achieve accelerated growth of her economy but once achieved to sustain it. This is because growth is seen as a harbinger for the development of the economy. Beyond this, growth helps create employment and break the vicious circle of poverty. The nomads are a microcosm of those who create values\add to economic activities or economic growth of the nation. Therefore it is justable that education be extended to them. To corroborate the above, Amadi (2015) asserted that the important role played by the fulani can be seen in their being the major supplier of beef, mutton, hide and skins, hoof, horn, dung for manure, bones, cow urine used in the production of medicine etc. satisfying 95 percent of their compatriots protein needs, they are undeniably an important segment of the nation’s economy. The “Janjali” tax which they pay should further elicit pity and consideration in the distribution of amenities which they are unfortunately denied.
Despite the rise in government expenditure in Nigeria over the years, education has not had its fair share as the allocation to the sector is below the 26% of the annual budget threshold of UNSCO. In addition what is appropriated to Nomadic education is nothing to write home about. Equally there are still public out cries over decaying infrastructural facilities generally, particularly in the education sector and specifically in nomadic education programme. Also merely limited empirical studies have done examination of government expenditure on Nomadic Education and Economic Growth in Nigeria.
Some works related to this study are, Akighir and Okpe (2013) Government expenditure on Nomadic Education in Nigeria. Implication for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals with the aid of descriptive statistics, of data generated between 1990 and 2008. Amadi (2015) Nomadic Education in Nigeria, using English to foster communal peace and enhance the education of the Herdsmen. Aminu (1991) the Evolution of NOMADIC Education Policy in Nigeria, Alkali (1991) The challenges of Educating pastoral Nomads in Nigeria . Limitation and options Adamu and Kirk (1986) pastoralist of West Africa savanna. Ismail (2000) Nomadic Education and Education for Nomadic Fulani. Nafisatu and Abdul (2010) enhancing livestock development and means of existence for the vulnerable populations through education and training. A case of NEP in Nigeria, Tahir et al. (2005) improving the quality of Nomadic Education in Nigeria: Going Beyond Access and Equity, Tahir (1998)” Nomadic Education in Nigeria: issues, problems and prospects,” Association for the Development of Education in Africa (1999) ensuring Access and Equity in Basic Education for nomads in Nigeria , 1996-199.” From the above, the topic Human Capital Development and Economic Growth in Nigeria: the Role of Nomadic Education has an intellectual lacuna to fill. The crucial question that agitates the mind of any critical scholar is does federal expenditure on education, particularly nomadic education contribute to growth of Nigerian economy? Whereas the broad objective of this study is to examine the impact of human capital development on economic growth, the specific objective is to empirically estimate or determine the effects of federal government expenditure on nomadic education on economic growth in Nigeria. The hypothesis to be tested in the course of this study stated in the null form is: Ho: Federal government expenditure on nomadic education has no significant statistical relationship with economic growth in Nigeria. The result of the study will provide guide to educational planners and administrators in formulating appropriate plans and strategies as well as to make budget in line with UNESCO’S benchmark for the sector. This study is made up of five sections; section one is introduction, section two deals with review of related literature, section three dwells on research method and section 4 is devoted to discussion of results obtained while section five is summary of the findings, conclusion and policy recommendations.
There are extant of literature-conceptual, theoretical, and empirical on human capital development and economic growth. Accordingly this study navigates on literature by adducing that an economy cannot develop above the level of its resource endowment, as the engine of growth of any economy is the stock of resources she possesses and invests. Resources are either natural or manmade. The natural resources are human beings, land and minerals a country has, why the man made resources are physical which are technological and financial. The human resource are transformed or developed through education either in the formal or informal setting.
Hence Mekdem (2012) cited or reported by Boussalem et al. (2014) Posited that in economic literature, the concept of human resources was defined by including the education and other investments which increase the productivity of an individual. However the economists of growth who incorporated human resources into economic growth pay bigger attention to analyzed him of the impact of the education on the economic growth whereas they ignore the role of the human resources of health. Ijaiya and Ijaiya (2004) posited that the concept of education has been defined as a life-long process through which man’s all round (moral, emotional, and physical development) is facilitated so that he can be useful to himself and the society into which he is born. Also Adeyinka and Adetoro (1992) cited by Edame and Eturoma (2014) asserted that education entails training and acquisition of special skills, knowledge, attitudes and values needed by an individual to be responsible and also gives him room to contribute his quota to the growth of the society of which he is a member.
According to Schulz (1962) formal education is a kind of investment in human beings that enables them to acquire skills. Such skills raise the marginal product of the worker itself and also help to raise the marginal product of the other co-operant factors. Thus human capital has a unique character, it enters production function as a factor of production and also as a marginal product augmenting variable. The later makes the marginal rate or return on capital and other inputs rise continuously so that the unexplained growth rate explains the Solow’s surplus. Also Omojimite (2010) opined that informal education begins at the household level where children are taught how to sweep, clean their environment, fish or farm. By participating in these activities they learn how to do things by themselves and contribute to family income growth.
Nomadism and Nomadic are coined from Nomad. Nomadism and pastoralism are at times interchangeably used which has the grave implication of mindset that nomadic education is only for the Fulani cattle rearers, hence it is pertinent to attempt their distinction here. Whereas according to Amadi (2015) Nomadism as a term is used to signify the activities of itinerant group who drive their cattle to pasture, in a sense pastoralism is more inclusive encompassing pastoral character, fashion, cult and mode of writing of the group. Also Aminu (1991) posited that the term pastoralism includes all migratory groups dislocated by ecological and occupational hazards that are deprived of a settled home. The fisherman thus though not rearing cattle are all nomads if they live itinerant lives and have no land holding rights. By extension therefore those who are displaced by the Boko Haram insurgent group, now living in Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) Camps could and should be considered or included in the scheme of things as regards nomadic education.
Ejere (2011) cited by Eigbiremolen and Anaduaka (2014) posited that human capital refers to the human factor in the production process and consist of the combined knowledge, skills or competencies and abilities of the work force. Also Jaiyeoba (2015) opined that human capital investment helps to lead fuller and richer lives, less bound by tradition. It is a way to empower people, this in turn will help them contribute substantially to the growth process in the economy. Equally Ibok and Ibanga (2014) cited (NES 2002) asserted that the concept of human capital refers to the abilities and skills of the human resources of a country, why human capital formation refers to the process of acquiring and increasing the number of persons who have the skills the education and experience that are crucial for the economic growth and political development of a country. In the same vein Oluwatoyin (2011) cited jhingan (2005) Opined that in its wider sense, investment in human capital means expenditure on health education and social services in general, and in its narrower sense, it implies expenditure on education and training. In addition Odusola (1988) was cited by Adawo (2011) posited that the concept of human capital formation refers to a conscious and continuous process of acquiring and increasing the number of people with requisite knowledge, education, skill and experience that are crucial for the economic and political development of a country. The acquisition of knowledge and skill through education and training could be by means of in-service training, refresher course, seminar, workshop, conference on the job training or experience, part-time programme and full-time programme. Whichever the source, the essence is to enhance the productivity of the recipient. Thus to educate the nomads could be an evening program affair in which case the nomadic teacher comes to teach the nomads at their period of rest. Also advocated is the shift system which requires the movement of the school as the nomads move to another fishing point or move their cattle in search of pasture. The distant learning approach could equally be adopted, have materials sent to the target group to enable them learn at their leisure without a specific time fixed for them.
Having navigated thus far it is clear that there is a link between human capital development or investment to be specific education and economic growth. To buttress the point made here. Kurt (2015) posited that all kinds of expenditure on education and health raises the level of human capital and makes a positive contribution to economic growth. Also Edame and Eturoma (2014) opined that government expenditures on education raise the productivity of labour and determine productivity. For example workers with greater problem-solving and communication abilities would perform better than their less skilled counterparts at any task that requires more than routine application of physical labour and will also learn faster and adapt better to changing circumstances. Equally/Imoughe and Isamaila (2013) cited Al-yesufy (2000) and Lawanson (2009) who noted that education, health care, training and investment in social services enhance and improve the human capacity which has a spillover effect on economic growth. Lopez-Casanovas et. al (2005) cited by Kurt (2015) asserted that sustainable growth depends on increased human capital stocks due to a better education, higher level of health and a new learning-application process.
Aside the two 19th century renowned theories of public expenditure of Wagner and wiseman-peacock, others that stands out in the 20th century include masgrave, Keynes, Solow’s and Endogenous public expenditure growth theories. According to Anyanwu et al. (1997), Wanger (1835-1917) postulated that there exist a relationship between growth of the economy and levels of government activities in such a way that government activities grow faster than the economy. Equally he argue that there exist a casual and effect relationship between growth of industrialization and the growth of public sector.
Equally Anyanwu et al. (1997) reporting Jack Wiseman and Allan Peacock in their study of UK economy came up with the finding that the growth of the economy is a jerk and step like in nature and not a smooth continuous pattern. Going by this theory, public expenditure is determine by time period, which is divided into normal and crisis or upheaval periods. During the normal or peace time public expenditure shows a gradual rise, while in crisis period which include wars and period of famine, public expenditure shows galloping increase, this is because government spends more and imposes high taxes on the public to be able to fund her expenditure and this produces displacement effect.
Musgrave propounded that in the early stages of economic development public sector expenditure, tends to be very high. This is due to the engagement of the public sector in the provision of social overhead which include construction of network of roads, provision of transportation and sanitary systems, law and order, health and education, as well as investment on human capital development generally. These kinds of public sector investment help to gear up the economy in the middle stages of development. Thus at the early stages government provide so many basic need or infrastructure to push or move the economy forward or higher (nude) stages. At the middle stages the government provides social goods complement the services and infrastructure already provided at the early stages of development.
Keynes regards public expenditure as an exogenous factor which can be utilized as a policy instrument to promote economic growth. In the Keynesian model increase in government expenditure, now leads to higher economic growth. To Keynes demand is a prerequisite for growth, thus aggregate demand management policies should be employed to improve economic performance or activity. In the Keynesian view point government consumption will increase employment, profitability and investment through multiplier effects on aggregate demand. Therefore government expenditure will complement aggregate demand and triggers increased output which is a function of the expenditure multipliers.
In Solow’s model, other things being equal, saving/investment and population growth rate are important determinants of economic growth. Higher saving/investment rates leads to accumulation of more capital per worker hence more output per worker. On the other hand, high population growth has a negative effect on economic growth, simply because a higher fraction of saving in economies with higher population growth has to go, to keep the capital labour ratio constant in the absence of technological change and innovation, an increase in capital per worker would not be matched by a proportional increase in output per worker because of demising returns. Hence capital deepening would lower the rate of return on capital (Chude and Chude, 2013)
The endogenous growth model developed by Mankiw et al. (1992) is an improvement over Solow’s exogenous growth theory. Rather than assume technology to be exogenous it implicitly modeled it by analyzing it’s determinants. To them economic growth is made possible by technological progress in the economy, which is the ability of the economic unit or agent to put into productive use her resources in the most efficacious way over time. This ability is tied to the process of learning to operate newly created production facilities in a more productive manner. It implies learning to cope with rapid changes in the structure of production which industrial progress requires.
Several studies, on advanced and developing economies including Nigeria have been done on human capital development and economic growth. And some of them have shown handsome returns to various forms of human capital accumulation, basic education, research, training, learning-by doing and capacity building. A handful of such studies are reviewed here. Eigbiremolen and Anaduaka (2014) employed augment Solow’s human capital growth model to investigate the impact of human capital development on national output, a proxy for economic growth using quarterly time-series data from 1999-2012 the result showed that human capital development in line with theory, exhibits significant positive impact on output level. Also Oluwatobi and Ogunrinola (2011) in their study examined the relationship between human capital development efforts of government and economic growth in Nigeria, using the augmented Solow’s model. The result revealed that there exist a positive relationship between government recurrent expenditure on human capital development and the level of real output.
Olulu et al. (2014) investigated the empirical relationship between government expenditure and economic growth. The study applied the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) analysis on disaggregated data sourced. The result showed that government expenditure on education sector is insufficient to cater for the expanding sector in Nigeria. Jaiyeoba (2015) in her study of the empirical investigation on the relationship between investment in education, health and economic growth in Nigeria, using time-series data from 1983 to 2011. She employed trend analysis, the Johanson co-integration and Ordinary Least Squares technique. The empirical findings indicated that there is long-run relationship between government expenditure on education, health and economic growth.
Nworji et al. (2012) examined the effect of public expenditure on economic growth in Nigeria for the period 1970 – 2009. Adopting the Ordinary Least Squares multiple regression analyses the result indicated capital and recurrent expenditures on social and community services had statistical and significant positive effect on economic growth. Chude and Chude (2013) investigated the effects of public expenditure in education on economic growth in Nigeria over the period from 1977 to 2012 with particular focus on the disaggregated and sectoral expenditure analysis, using ex-post factor research design and applied time series econometrics technique. The result revealed that total education expenditure was highly and statistically significant and has positive relationship on economic growth in Nigeria in the long run.
Adewara and Oloni (2012) examined the relationship between the composition of public expenditure and economic growth in Nigeria between 1960 and 2008, using The Vector Autoregressive (VAR) model. Their result indicates that expenditure on education has failed to enhance economic growth due to the high rate of rent seeking in the country as well as the growing rate of unemployment. Nurudeen and Usman (2010) in their study government expenditure and economic growth in Nigeria between 1970 and 2008 their result showed that the variables-total capital expenditure and government expenditure on education have negative effects on economic growth. Adeniyi and Bashir (2011) examined sectorial analysis of the impact of public investment on economic growth in Nigeria 1970-2008 and found that government spending on education is a significant factor that influenced economic growth in Nigeria.
Edame and Eturoma (2014) examined the determinants of public expenditure on infrastructural facilities in education and economic growth in Nigeria, base on time series data using the Ordinary Least Squares. The result revealed that public expenditure on education had significant impact on economic growth. Adawo (2011) used the econometrics model to examine the contribution of primary education, secondary education and tertiary education to economic growth of Nigeria. The result revealed that primary school input was found to contribute to growth while secondary input and tertiary institution where found to dampen growth. Omojimite (2010) examined the notion that formal education accelerates economic growth using Nigeria data for the period 1980-2005. Time series econometrics tests where applied. The result revealed that public expenditure on education Granger cause economic growth.
Akighir and Okpe (2013) examined government expenditure on nomadic education in Nigeria and the implication for achieving the Millennium Development Goals, using descriptive statistics to analysed secondary data generated between 1990 and 2008. The result indicated that increase in government expenditure on nomadic education have precipitated increase in the number of nomadic schools and teachers employed. Equally revealed, is that enrolment by nomads in the schools have also increased over time but not proportionate with the increase in the government expenditure. Finally Oluwatoyin (2011) investigated human capital investment and economic growth; the role of education. The study adopted econometrics analysis and found that a positive relationship exists between government expenditure on education and economic growth in Nigeria. Of the empirical literatures reviewed some are on human capital development /investment and economic growth, others are on education and economic growth while one is on Nomadic education and Millennium Development Goals, implying that this study on nomadic education and economic growth has knowledge gap to fill.
To investigate the effect of government Nomadic education expenditure on economic growth in Nigeria, Ordinary Least Square (OLS) was adopted, to analyse the secondary data generated between 1986 and 2014.
The data generated for analyses were obtained from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Statement of Accounts and Statistical bulletin, budget office of the federation, federal ministry of finance as well as national commission for nomadic education.
Theoretical framework of the study anchors on Chude and Chude (2013) which is rooted in the endogenous growth model such as Lucas (1988); Romer (1990); Barro (1990); Mankiw et al. (1992).
In the endogenous growth model capital is not limited to the physical capital but also includes knowledge, Skills, and experience owned by the labour input as well. Thus growth is considered a function of human capital too and not physical capital only. The component of human capital, knowledge, skills, abilities and experience are developed through education and Health. The endogenous growth model hinges on the neo classical exogenous growth model of Solow (1956) which asserted or stipulated that the level of saving-capital accumulation affects growth in the transition period. However neglected human capital which is an important input. The model is of the view that productive government expenditure may affect the incentive to invest in human or physical capital but in the long-run, this affects only the equilibrium factor ratios, not the growth rate, although in the general there will be transitional growth effects.
The model estimation of Chude and Chude (2013) are as follows:
RµGDP = (TEDU) ………………………………….(1)
yt= β o + β 1x1+ut …………………………………….(2)
where Yt is the Real Gross Domestic Product (RGDP), β o is the intercept term, β 1 is the regression coefficient, Xt is a set of base line explanatory variables and µt is the error term. While TEDU is total education expenditure in Nigeria.
To examine the effect of government Nomadic education on economic growth in Nigeria, the functional relationship between the variables is stated below:
RGDP = f(NEDUE) ………………………………….(3)
While the operational form of equ(3) yields equation (4)
RGDPt = β o + β 1 NEDUE + µt ……………………...(5)
Where:
RGDP = Real Gross Domestic Product
NEDUE = Nomadic Education Expenditure
β o = Intercept
β 1 = Parameter to be estimated.
µt = error term
By apriori expectation β 1 > 0
In this section, we undertake the empirical analysis of the impact of Nomadic education on Nigeria’s economic growth for the period 1986 to 2014. The Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression technique was used to determine the nature of relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The regression result is presented below in table 4.1:
Table 4.1. Long Run Regression
| Intercept | 3.0649* (4.3220) |
| NEDUE | 0.5161* (5.4298) |
| R2 Adjusted R2 |
0.7107 0.6866 |
| DW Statistic | 1.9902 |
| F- Statistic Prob (F- Statistic) |
29.4829 0.0000 |
| Note: t- Statistic; *1%. | |
Source: Author’s Regression Output, 2016
The results presented in Table 4.1 shows that the R- squared (R2) that measures the proportion of the variations in the dependent variable attributed to the independent variable is 0.7107. This implies that government expenditure on nomadic education can explain about 71.07 percent of the variations in real gross domestic product RGDP and the remaining can be attributed to other factors not included in the model. The DW estimate indicates 1.9902, implying that there is absence of autocorrelation in the estimated model. The probability (F- Stat) suggests that the model is statistically significant since its value is 0.0000. The coefficient of government Nomadic education expenditure (NEDUE) is 0.5161. This implies that a one percent increase in (NEDUE) will result in a 0.5161 percent increase in Nigeria real gross domestic product proxy by economic growth. This variable was found to be statistically significant at 1% percent levels of significance judging from the low probability value estimate of 0.0000. The implication of this finding is that expansionary government expenditure on nomadic education would promote Nigeria economic growth. This is consistent with the apriori expectation.
This study examined the impact of Nomadic education expenditure and economic growth in Nigeria. The study made use of time series data on real gross domestic product and total government expenditure on Nomadic education from 1986 to 2014. This study adopted Ordinary Least Square (OLS), which provided information about the long-run relationship between the variables. The finding of the study empirically showed that total government expenditure on Nomadic education ((NEDUE) has a significant impact on Nigeria economic growth. As such, there is need for the government to increase her budgetary allocation to nomadic education and other educational sub-sectors because adequate investment in this sector will improve educational outcome and induce the nation economic growth.
| Funding: This study received no specific financial support. |
| Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. |
| Contributors/Acknowledgement: Both authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. |
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